The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
In The Gambia like all nations, drug abuse is seen as a social and health problem that has many serious implications for the physical, social, psychological and intellectual development of the victims more especially, the children. Therefore, it continues to be a concern to families, community leaders, educators, social workers, health care professionals, academics, government and its development partners. Though there are some studies on drug abuse, there is none on children and drug abuse focusing on the street children the most vulnerable category. Street children are hypothesized to be more at risk of any epidemic including drug abuse. This study sought to determine the risk and prevalence of drug abuse among street children focusing on those in the car parks. The research was focused on six critical areas: level of knowledge of drug abuse, perception towards it, level of knowledge of the causes of it in the community and among street children, level of knowledge of negative impacts of it, level of knowledge of the preventive methods; and level of knowledge of the support services and treatments needed by victims. A structured questionnaire was used to collect the data from thirty five participants (i.e. one driver and six casual apprentices from each of the five car parks) were interviewed. The data was presented and analyzed using tables and percentage. The findings revealed among other things, that there is high level of awareness of drug abuse but the feelings towards it are mixed. Like other children, street children are abusing drugs mainly due to peer influence with the ultimate objective of getting high to relief stress, group recognition, desire to be trusted by peers, etc. Similarly, participants are highly aware of the negative impacts encompassing fighting, stealing, mental illness, etc. To finance the behavior, victims are engaged in all types of dangerous antisocial behavior including romantic ones exposing them to a range of diseases including STIs and HIV/AIDS. Marijuana is the most commonly abused drug. Though in the minority, some have started experimenting cocaine/coke, hashish; and heroin. While participants have good knowledge of the critical methods to fight drug abuse, the support services needed by victims, victims are mostly reluctant to seek the services not only because they are hard to find but fear societal stigmatization, exclusion and discrimination and professionals’ maltreatments.
Drug abuse is no longer just part of the seedy underbelly of society as it has exploded into the open streets, reaching nearly every corner of civilization. The once silent killer is claiming more victims than ever before, and in horrific manners. Sadly, drug abuse continues to maintain a stranglehold on adolescences stripping away their chances for stable, happy and productive life, The Real Truth (n.d.)
While In 2015 about a quarter of a billion people used drugs, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (n.d.)
Africa now occupies second position worldwide in the trafficking and consumption of illegal drugs. The UN estimate in 2014, there were 28 million drug users in Africa and 37,000 people die annually from diseases associated with the consumption of illegal drugs. The children are identified as the most vulnerable, especially those who cannot resist peer pressure, DW Made for Mind (2013)
The Gambia like all developing countries has many problems one of which is substance abuse and associated problems. Through 2001, increased in the abuse of cannabis, heroin, cocaine, ecstasy and other stimulant drugs were noted in the country, United Nations (2003) as cited in Anderson, Z. (2004)
Because children are the source of hope and inspiration for the society, they have the right to be protected, supported and brought up in a positive environment. Unfortunately, children do not only live in poverty but tens of millions of them around the world find themselves living or working in the streets as street children. Street children is a growing global phenomenon that is characterized by vulnerable children migrating to the streets in the urban areas in developed and developing countries (Niekerk, V. 2007) as cited in Molahlehi, L. A. (2014)
However, research shows that the street children phenomenon is not a new socio-economic problem as for a long time, vulnerable children whose personal and ecological resilience resources were depleted have adopted streetism in order to fend for themselves or supplement family income, De Moura, (2005) as quoted in Molahlehi, L. A. (2014)
Although the number of street children is unknown, existing estimates suggest that tens of millions of children are street-based and that their numbers are rising secondary to global population growth, the HIV epidemic, migration, and increasing urbanization, UNICEF. The state of the world’s children, (2012) as quoted in Woan, J. et al., (2013)
Street children are often found in busy places such as railway stations, bus stations, in front of film or night clubs, with no adult supervision, sleeping in half-destroyed houses, abandoned basements, under bridges and in open air, UNICEF. Street and unsupervised children of Africa, (2003) as cited in Cumber, S. M., et al., (2015)
Therefore, street children survive on the streets through conventional and unconventional ways such as rubbish picking, shoe shining, flower selling, petty crimes, drug abuse, begging, panhandling, prostitution, petty theft; and drug trafficking. They also develop passive and aggressive attitudes, replacing their families with street gangs and experiencing social, sexual, physical and emotional abuse, Grundling, et al., (2004) as quoted in Molahlehi, L. A. (2014)
The Gambia government as a party to many international and regional conventions: Convention on the Psychotropic Substance of 1971, UN Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic and Drugs and Psychotropic Substances of 1988, in response to the concerns, has developed numerous policies (e.g. National Drug Policy) and laws (e.g. National Drug Control Act) to tackle it and its associated problems. All major drugs like cannabis, heroin and cocaine are illegal in the country and it is illegal to sell alcohol to under 16 years, Anderson, Z. (2004)
The links between drug abuse and vulnerability have been a great concern for many people including parents, policy makers, academics, etc. Vulnerability has over the years been blamed for the occurrence of many social problems including the natural and man-made and ones. Therefore, the abuse of drugs especially by children like most disadvantaged groups have been to a degree associated with vulnerability among other things. To effectively address problems of any nature in the community including drug abuse it is critical we understand the community vulnerability more especially of the disadvantaged groups including the children, the last hope of all societies. Literature on drug use in adolescence suggest that personal vulnerability accounts for most experimental and drug abuse problems, Schensu, J.J. et al. (2005)
Thus, this chapter intents to review and furthermore put into perspectives findings of relevant studies on children and drug abuse focusing on the street children especially those in car parks. In light of importance of the protection of children in the fight against the continuity of a menace, it is critical that maximum attention is accorded to them especially those who do not have families to return to, thus, living and working in the streets. Numerous studies have revealed the prevalence of drug abuse among children especially the street children due to many factors including vulnerability due to age, lack of stable family and family structure, lack of basic necessities including food, shelter due to poverty, peer pressure, media, curiosity, stress, desire to work hard, relax, vigilance, accessibility, affordability, imitating parents, etc. Somani, S. et al.; (2016)
Hemovich, V. et al., (2011)
Atwoli, L. et al., (2011); Stoolmiller, M. et al., 2012) as cited in Somani, S. et al., (2016)
Eickenhort, P. et al., (2012) as cited in Mamat, C. F. et al., (2015)
Ghandour, L. A. et al., (2012) as cited in Mamat, C. F. et al., (2015)
Abdulmalik, J. et al., (2009) as cited in Mamat, C. F. et al., (2015)
The literature for street children in The Gambia is not only limited but does not provide anything on drug abuse. According to a study conducted by UNICEF in 2006, about 60% of street children in The Gambia come from the neighboring states like Senegal and Guinea-Bissau and majority are Quranic students who beg for food and money on behalf of their instructors. In the event they do not deliver enough food and money they are subjected to all types of abuse, Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN) (2009)
Therefore, since there no study on children and drug abuse more especially the street children in terms of their abuse of drugs, attitudes towards it, their awareness of their own abuse and the impacts, this study seeks to shed light on street children and drug abuse. The central questions that guided the study are as follow: level of knowledge of drug abuse, perception towards drug abuse, level of knowledge of the causes of drug abuse, level of knowledge of the negative impacts of drug abuse, level of knowledge of the preventive methods of drug abuse; and level of knowledge of the support services and treatments needed by drugs abusers.
The study was conducted in five car parks within the urban areas namely; Serekunda, Coastal road, Bundung, Banjul; and Brikama car park. In view of the volume of commuters these car parks have become one of the busiest places in towns and growth centers and as a result they have become one of the favorite places for all types of children including street children scavenging for better life through casual employment and petty trading. Therefore, it is not uncommon to come across children as young as nine years working as van or bus apprentices or merely ‘passenger loaders’ with a token commission. Often not only involve in hazardous work like lifting heavy luggage, jostling between cars, scrabbling customers, constantly shouting the names of different destinations, slapping cars bear hands, etc. but dressed in tatter clothes, with red eyes, small dreadlock, speaking pidgin, feeling drunken, trading insults and abusive words with fellow apprentices and costumers sometimes, etc.
In light of the high mobility of the studied population, purposive sampling techniques was used to select a sample of forty participants. Ten commercial van drivers and thirty children, who are both street children and casual commercial van apprentices. A purposive sampling technique is used when the researcher is deliberately interested in targeted groups with the intention to address the objectives of a study. The study intended to interview eight participants (two drivers and six apprentices) from each car park but due to unforeseen circumstances namely cost, reluctance and time, only thirty five participants (i.e. one driver and six apprentices from each car park) were interviewed.
Because the study was solely sponsored by the researcher and was to be executed within six months the sampling procedure was kept as possible as simple without comprising quality and as such all major car parks in three main councils (Banjul, Kanifing and Brikama) were put together and five car parks were randomly selected by balloting. The total number of drivers in each was obtained from the transport union representative or car pack managers. The participating drivers and casual apprentices were equally chosen by simple random sampling to obtain the required sample.
Two retired commercial van drivers and a social worker with extensive experience working with this population were approached to assist in recruiting the participants especially the street children. Casual apprentices were eligible to participate only if they were:
Between the ages of 7 to 17;
Not currently permanently engaged by a driver or enrolled in formal educational institution;
Spending majority of their time in car parks sometimes working or roaming; and
Having limited or no contact with a family and spend both days and nights living and sleeping in the car park or nearby places without returning to a family or a guardian at night.
The data was collected by conducting individual interviews using a structured questionnaire with thirty five participants (i.e. one driver and six apprentices from each car park). The questionnaire was divided into 6 (six) sections namely, level of knowledge of drug abuse, perception towards drug abuse, level of knowledge of the causes of drug abuse, level of knowledge of the negative impacts of drug abuse, level of knowledge of the preventive methods of drug abuse; and level of knowledge of the support services and treatments needed by drugs abusers.
The data analysis process was in two folds: the first fold was coding and creation of tables, preparation of variables by combining a number of codes, converting codes into variables or developing completely new variables. This was used to provide a summary of patterns that emerged from the responses.
The below posed as great challenges in conducting the research:
The fundamental rationales of the study were to research into drugs abuse by street children focusing on those in the car parks and commercial drivers level of knowledge of drug abuse, perception towards it, level of knowledge of the causes, level of knowledge of the negative impacts, level of knowledge of the preventive methods; and level of knowledge of the support services and treatments needed by drugs abusers. Therefore, specifically the study aimed to:
examine the prevalence of substance abuse among the street children;
know the types of drugs commonly abused, the sources, and where they are commonly abused;
find out how the children are able to get the drugs;
know what the children perceived to be the effects of drug abuse;
determine how drug abuse can be prevented to protect children from the menace;
know what kind of supports or treatments victims of drug abuse need and who should provide them.
The significance of the study stemmed from the following:
It will contribute to the body of existing knowledge in academia and other fields;
It will act as an input for policy and law makers to improve their ability to design effective policies and programmes to cater for all groups;
It will provide a base for the protection of all children including the street children and other vulnerable groups.
It will be useful to child rights and child protection advocates.
It will increase people knowledge of the risk of drug abuse by the street children in the car parks.
The concepts drug abuse, street children like most social concepts have widely been debated and have numerous definitions. For the purpose of this study:
Thought the study was non-invasive and was not likely to inflict any harm on the participants, to accord priority to respondents’ welfare, major ethical consideration was made while executing it. Therefore, the below captioned ethical considerations were performed sequentially: First, the objectives of the study were explained to all participants verbally in a language they understand well to secure their verbal permission. Second, the issue of how, when; and where to collect the data were determined as per the participants’ willingness. Third, all participants were informed about all the possible discomfort if any they were likely to experience during the process of the data collection. Fourth, they were all informed about their right to stop participating at any time they so wish. Lastly, informed consent were obtained from all participants by acknowledging to participate in the presence of a driving instructor.
Annually, millions of deaths and disorders occur due to drugs abuse. Todays, tens of millions of children around the world find themselves living and working in the streets and in this marginalized state they do not only constitute a ‘hidden’ population since they are not under any adult or scheme and cannot be found in any national data, but the most vulnerable group to the risk factors for drug abuse that represent challenges to their emotional, social and academic development. Since adolescence is a critical stage in life and is the most transformative period, it is fundamental that children are protected from the devastative effects of drug abuse. To adequately protect them, it is critical that among other things their level of knowledge of drug abuse, perception towards it, level of knowledge of the causes of it in the community and among the street children, level of knowledge of negative impacts of it, level of knowledge of the preventive methods; and level of knowledge of the support services and treatments needed by drug abusers is scientifically documented.
In reacting to whether they have ever heard of hard drugs, all responded in the positive. However, they reacted differently in commenting what drugs abuse means: smoking illegal substances 18(31.03%), drinking illegal drinks 11(18.96%), misused of drugs 8(13.79%), excessive drug use 7(12.06%), unauthorized drugs use 6 (10.34%), and others specified 5 (8.62%). In a following up question as to whether they know any type of hard drugs in the community, the respondents reacted as illustrated opium 17 (26.15%), marijuana 13(20.00%), alcohol 9(13.84%), inhalant 7(10.76%), hashish 5 (7.69%), antibiotics 3(4.61%), etc.
While the vast majority 28(93.33%) of the respondents claimed to have seen hard drugs in the community, in a related question as to the types of hard drugs they have seen in the community, they reacted as follow, alcohol 19 (21.83%), opium 15 (17.24%), marijuana 14 (16.09%), inhalant11 (12.64%), cocaine 9 (10.34%); and others specified 8 (9.19%). In a follow up question as to whether drug abuse is happening in the community, the majority 17 (68%) responded in the affirmative. In the same vein, majority 21(70%) acknowledged that drug abuse is happening in their community and have personally witnessed people being engaged in it. In a related question as to the age range/bracket of the people they have seen abusing it, the respondents felt as follows, (18 to 22 ) 15(30%), (13 to 17 ) 12 (24%), (23 to 27) 8 (16%), (8 to 12 ) 7 (14%), and (33 to 37) 5 (10%). In reacting to which drugs are mostly abused in the community, the respondents shared their views as marijuana 21 (22.82%), alcohol 19 (20.65%), opium 13 (14.13%), cocaine 11 (11.95%), inhalant 8 (8.69%), antibiotics 7 (7.60%), hashish and others specified 4(4.34%) respectively. In a follow up question as to why those drugs are mostly abused, the participants reacted as illustrated quick drunkenness/high 17 (23.61%), make one’s work hard and long 14 (19.44%), easily accessible 11 (15.27%), easily affordable 9 (12.50%), long term drunkenness/high 7 (9.72%), drunkenness not easily notice and others specified 5(6.94%) respectively.
In responding to how drug abuse is view in the community, the participants lamented as captured in the
|
|
|
---|---|---|
Bad | 21 | 16.80% |
Very bad | 46 | 36.80% |
A curse on the community | 7 | 5.60% |
A waste of the youths | 4 | 3.20% |
Punishment from God | 11 | 8.80% |
Negative effects of development | 8 | 6.40% |
Normal | 13 | 10.40% |
A careless attitude | 6 | 4.80% |
Predestined | 2 | 1.60% |
Others specified | 3 | 2.40% |
A parental failure | 4 | 3.20 |
|
|
|
In a related question as to how the community considers drugs abusers, the respondent felts as highlighted in
|
|
|
---|---|---|
Dangerous | 25 | 18.51% |
Aimless and good for nothing | 20 | 14.81% |
Failures | 7 | 5.18% |
Lazy and unproductive | 21 | 15.55% |
Criminal and thieves | 27 | 20.00% |
Cursed and a societal burden | 13 | 9.62% |
Shameless and disappointing | 7 | 5.18% |
Disbelievers and evils | 9 | 6.66% |
Wealthy | 4 | 2.96% |
Others specified | 2 | 1.48% |
|
|
|
In commenting on how the respondent themselves view drug abusers in the community, they reacted as captured in
|
|
|
---|---|---|
Useless | 7 | 6.19 |
Sometimes friendly | 9 | 7.96 |
Sympathetic | 5 | 4.42 |
Caring and sharing | 1 | 0.88 |
Sometimes dangerous | 27 | 23.88 |
Always dangerous | 11 | 9.73 |
Aimless | 11 | 9.73 |
Thieves and unreliable | 12 | 10.61 |
Cursed | 5 | 4.42 |
Shameless | 5 | 4.42 |
Wealthy | 7 | 6.19 |
Wasteful | 11 | 9.73 |
Others specified | 2 | 1.76 |
|
|
|
In responding to whether children are involved in drugs abuse, the majority 21(70.00%) responded in the affirmative. In a follow up question as to which categories of children are likely to be engaged in drug abuse, respondent reacted as mapped out in
|
|
|
---|---|---|
Orphans | 12 | 7.59 |
Single parent children | 10 | 6.32 |
School drop outs | 21 | 13.29 |
Street children | 19 | 12.02 |
Poor performing students | 14 | 8.86 |
Good performing students | 2 | 1.26 |
Children of drug abusers | 18 | 11.39 |
Children of homeless parents | 15 | 9.49 |
Children of jobless parents | 18 | 11.39 |
Children from poor family | 16 | 10.12 |
Children of divorced parents | 9 | 5.69 |
Children from the provinces | 3 | 1.89 |
Others specify | 1 | 0.63 |
|
|
|
In reacting to why children are engage in drug abuse, the respondents felt differently as highlighted in
|
|
|
---|---|---|
Peer influence | 29 | 14.87 |
Easy accessibility | 14 | 7.17 |
Easy affordability | 19 | 9.74 |
Ignorance and poverty | 17 | 8.71 |
Lack of parental supervision | 10 | 5.12 |
Not fearing adults in the community | 11 | 5.64 |
Unstable/broken home environment | 21 | 10.86 |
Poor academic achievements | 22 | 11.28 |
Curiosity and weak law enforcement | 16 | 8.2 |
Pleasure and brevity seeking | 24 | 12.3 |
To work hard and for long hours | 10 | 5.12 |
Others specify | 2 | 1.02 |
|
195 |
|
In commenting on where the children mostly abuse drugs, participants opined as indicated in
|
|
|
---|---|---|
Their own homes | 4 | 2.96 |
Schools | 9 | 6.66 |
Car parks | 21 | 15.55 |
Night and video clubs | 14 | 10.37 |
Football fields | 11 | 8.14 |
Street corners | 25 | 18.51 |
Ghettoes and during parties | 14 | 10.37 |
Beach sides | 9 | 6.66 |
Peers’ homes | 26 | 19.25 |
Others specify | 2 | 1.48 |
|
|
|
While the majority 23(76.66%) claimed to have heard children who works and live in car parks abusing drugs, the majority 21(70.00%) equally confirmed to have seen some children in the car parks abusing drugs. In a related question as to how these children get the drugs, the participants felt as mapped out in
|
|
|
---|---|---|
Peers offered them | 25 | 24.03 |
Adult abusers offered them | 13 | 12.5 |
Buying them individually | 9 | 8.65 |
Buying them jointly | 21 | 20.19 |
Stealing | 10 | 9.61 |
Picking remains in the streets | 11 | 10.57 |
As a gift for services to drug dealers | 9 | 8.65 |
Payment for services including romantic | 5 | 4.8 |
Others specify | 1 | 0.96 |
|
|
|
In commenting on why children who work and live in the car parks abuse drugs, respondents reacted differently as captured in
|
|
|
---|---|---|
Peer influence and group recognition | 33 | 15.63 |
Easy accessibility | 18 | 8.53 |
Easy affordability | 12 | 5.68 |
Ignorance | 19 | 9 |
Lack of parental supervision | 27 | 12.79 |
Lack of stable home environment | 21 | 9.95 |
Curiosity | 23 | 10.9 |
For seeking pleasure and relaxation | 17 | 8.05 |
To work hard and for long hours | 20 | 9.47 |
To relieve stress | 19 | 9 |
Others specified | 2 | 0.94 |
|
|
|
In reacting to the perceived benefits of drugs abuse by the children who works and live in the car parks, the respondents felt as illustrated in
|
|
|
---|---|---|
Hallucination/feeling high | 31 | 19.62 |
Ability to focus or concentrate | 18 | 11.39 |
Ability to think/memorize quickly | 7 | 4.43 |
Drowsiness | 26 | 16.45 |
Brevity | 19 | 12.02 |
Ability to work hard and for long hours | 25 | 15.82 |
Feel accepted and trusted by peers | 29 | 18.38 |
Others specified | 3 | 1.89 |
|
|
|
In addition to the vast majority 25(83.33%) subscribing to drug abuse having some negative impacts on the street children, in a follow up question regarding the negative impacts, the participants reacted as illustrated in
|
|
|
---|---|---|
Stroke | 5 | 2.6 |
Getting diseases (e.g. HIV/AIDS, TB, STIs) | 12 | 6.25 |
Mental illness | 31 | 16.14 |
Frequent fighting and stealing | 20 | 10.41 |
Road accidents involvement | 9 | 4.68 |
Problems and fighting at work place | 24 | 12.5 |
Endless family problems | 18 | 9.37 |
Becoming a school drop-outs | 19 | 9.89 |
Aggressive behaviors | 27 | 14.06 |
Endless problems with peers and colleagues | 22 | 11.45 |
Others specified | 4 | 2.08 |
|
|
|
In lamenting on the types of drugs mostly abuse by the street children, the respondents opined differently as mapped out in
|
|
|
---|---|---|
Alcohol | 17 | 14.52 |
Marijuana | 27 | 23.07 |
Cocaine | 1 | 0.85 |
Hashish | 5 | 4.27 |
Opium | 11 | 9.4 |
Heroine | 5 | 4.27 |
Inhalant | 26 | 22.22 |
Paracetamol | 1 | 0.85 |
Antibiotic | 13 | 11.11 |
Diazepam | 7 | 5.98 |
Others specified | 4 | 3.41 |
|
|
|
While the vast majority 23(76.66%) subscribed to drug abuse being preventable, the participants reacted differently regarding the methods of prevention as captured in
|
|
|
---|---|---|
Regular sensitization campaigns | 36 | 12.72 |
Productive activities engagement | 23 | 8.12 |
Avoidance of bad peer groups | 38 | 13.42 |
Closeness to responsible adults | 28 | 9.89 |
Self-esteem building activities engagement | 24 | 8.48 |
Storing drugs safely | 17 | 6 |
Tough laws enactment and enforcement | 19 | 6.71 |
Effective law enforcement agencies | 23 | 8.12 |
Mainstreaming drug abuse in curriculum | 27 | 9.54 |
Good parenting skills/methods | 22 | 7.77 |
Employment and family support provision | 24 | 8.48 |
Others specified | 2 | 0.7 |
|
|
|
In lamenting on the best methods of preventing drug abuse among the children, the participants ascribed to different strategies as demonstrated in
|
|
|
---|---|---|
Regular sensitization campaigns | 36 | 9.83 |
Always engagement in useful activities | 26 | 7.1 |
Avoidance of bad peer groups | 34 | 9.28 |
Always being closed to responsible adults | 25 | 6.83 |
Self-esteem building techniques | 31 | 8.46 |
Mainstreaming drug abuse in curriculum | 23 | 6.28 |
Application of good parenting methods | 18 | 4.91 |
One-on-one discussions with children | 21 | 5.73 |
Maintaining open line communication | 27 | 7.37 |
Provision of gainful employment | 5 | 1.36 |
Strong child-parent relationship | 28 | 7.65 |
Always monitoring children’s activities | 27 | 7.37 |
Family support services provision | 30 | 8.19 |
While all participants 30(100%) agreed that victims of drug abuse need support services and treatments, they reacted differently when it comes to the types of support services and treatments needed as illustrated in
|
|
|
---|---|---|
Behavioral counselling or therapy | 31 | 14.48 |
Regular and affordable medical treatments | 19 | 8.87 |
Regular family support | 23 | 10.74 |
Traditional or herbal treatments | 12 | 5.6 |
Vocational training or skills | 9 | 4.2 |
Uninterrupted educational services | 17 | 7.94 |
Supportive friends/family environments | 27 | 12.61 |
A sober social network and peers | 21 | 9.81 |
A sober living environment | 24 | 11.21 |
Support groups including spiritual ones | 29 | 13.55 |
Others specified | 2 | 0.93 |
|
|
|
In commenting on who should provide such support services and treatments, the participants felt as captured in
|
|
|
---|---|---|
The family | 19 | 8.55 |
The community | 19 | 8.55 |
Support groups | 24 | 10.81 |
Mosques/marabous/churches | 23 | 10.36 |
Community based organizations (CBOs) | 20 | 9 |
Faith based organizations (FBOs) | 12 | 5.4 |
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) | 18 | 8.1 |
United nations agencies | 24 | 10.81 |
Local government authorities | 26 | 11.76 |
Government institutions | 36 | 16.21 |
Other specified | 1 | 0.45 |
|
|
|
In reacting to whether such support services and treatments exist in the community, the majority 19(63.33%) responded in the negative while 8(26.66%) in the affirmative, and 3(10.00%) don’t seem to know. In a follow up question for those who responded in the affirmative as to where these support services and treatments exist, the respondents felt as mapped out in
|
|
|
---|---|---|
Medical facilities | 25 | 23.58 |
Shrine or spiritual places | 18 | 16.98 |
Marabous’ treatment centers | 28 | 26.41 |
Churches/missionaries | 6 | 5.66 |
Mosques | 5 | 4.71 |
Herbalists’ treatment centers | 22 | 20.75 |
Others specified | 2 | 1.88 |
|
|
|
In commenting on whether these support services and treatments are sought by the street children the majority 21(70.00%) reacted in the negative. In a follow up question as to why the street children don’t seek such support services and treatments, the participants opined differently as highlighted in
|
|
|
---|---|---|
Supports or services are expensive | 18 | 7.17 |
They don’t want people to know them | 34 | 13.54 |
Services providers are not child friendly | 29 | 11.55 |
They don’t trust the service providers | 26 | 10.35 |
The services are not effective | 23 | 9.16 |
The services are not easily accessible | 23 | 9.16 |
Fear of rejection by peers | 31 | 12.35 |
Fear of societal stigma and discrimination | 37 | 14.74 |
Fear of being reported to security agencies | 27 | 10.75 |
Others specified | 3 | 1.19 |
|
|
|
In addition to the majority 18(60.00%) of participants attesting to have tested hard and/or controlled drugs, in a follow up question as to why they have tested them, they felt differently as mapped out in
|
|
|
---|---|---|
Peer influence | 43 | 16.04 |
Easy accessibility | 28 | 10.44 |
Easy affordability | 11 | 4.1 |
Ignorance | 29 | 10.82 |
Lack of or poor parental supervision | 26 | 9.7 |
Lack of or inadequate home environment | 28 | 10.44 |
Curiosity | 31 | 11.56 |
Seeking pleasure and relaxation | 36 | 13.43 |
To work hard and for long hours | 33 | 12.31 |
Others specified | 3 | 1.11 |
|
|
|
The results indicate a high level of awareness of drugs in the community since all the participants have not only heard of them but have personally seen them and are well familiar with the different varieties available in the community and above all have seen people abusing them. With such degree of awareness, it is highly anticipated that the participants will do all it takes to avoid being engaged in abusing them despite being young, although age is found to be a strong risk factor. Rambaree, K. et al., (2017), the strongest predictor of reporting drug use was age. Somani, S. et al., (2016)
Heckman, C.J. et al., (2012)
However, the degree of knowledge and awareness of a particular phenomenon does not automatically guarantee people completely avoiding it or a behavioral change. Birch et al., (1998) as cited in Gossop, M. et al., (2001)
Furthermore, the findings revealed that in the community children as young as nine years are abusing drugs. This concurs with the age of initiation of substance abuse using non-drugs like glue was 9 years old, Ramlagan, S. et al., (2010)
Similarly, the results revealed that marijuana, alcohol, opium, cocaine, inhalant, and antibiotics are one of the most commonly abused drugs in the community, concurring with cannabis remains the most common illegal drug in African countries, United Nations (2003) as cited in Anderson, Z. (2004)
In the same vein, the findings revealed that the common abuse of these drugs was largely due to quick “highness” or drunkenness, making one work hard and long, easy accessibility and affordability, long term drunkenness, drunkenness being not easily noticed, etc. which dovetails with drugs make individual strong to do hard work, boost appetite to eat, to study to pass examinations, overcome problems, confidence to rape girls, work more to generate income for the family, provide protection for the family due to being feared by others, Ministry of Health/Ghana Health Service World Health Organization Ghana, (2003)
The results indicate a mix feelings towards drugs abuse with very bad, bad and normal at the top which is very encouraging and at the same time discouraging in the fight and total elimination of the menace in the society especially among the children the very last hope of all families, communities and nations. Regarding the phenomenon as evil in the society concurs with the public possess a negative attitude towards dependents, Low, W. et al., (1995)
Equally, viewing the phenomenon as normal in the society in light of the unprecedented developments taking place nearly everywhere concurs with adolescents’ involvement in drug abuse and selling of drugs routinely is regarded as natural, Filho, F. E.A. et al., (2015)
Furthermore, the findings revealed a highly negative and stigmatizing attitudes towards the abusers both by the community and participants which for some people can be supportive in the fight but it can equally be destructive as the more they feel ostracized and unwanted, the more they are likely not to seek support or treatments. Above all, it affects resources allocation at various levels in terms of fighting the menace. For instance, labeling them as criminals and thieves, dangerous, lazy and unproductive, aimless and good for nothing, cursed and a societal burden, disbelievers and evils, shameless and disappointing, failures, etc. does not denied them community support, push them into hiding, make them reluctant or even afraid to seek treatments, skip appointments, etc. but make their situations worse. This findings is strongly supported by local people saw cannabis users as being immature and incapable of looking after their self, Anderson, Z. (2004)
The results furthermore, unearthed different types of children being engaged in drug abuse or are at the risk of it namely, school drop outs, street children, children of jobless parents, children of drug abusers, children from poor family, children of homeless parents, poor performing students, orphans, single parent children, children of divorced parents, etc. which is in agreement with youth of single parent are at high risk for drug abuse as compare to adolescent with dual parents because single parents have financial crises and have less time to monitor their children Hemovich, V. et al., (2011)
The causes of drug abuse among children are adults marital conflicts, limited time for socialization, being orphans, selling and consuming drugs within the confines of households, peer influence, poverty, joblessness which result into idling, (Kudrati, M. et al., 2008; Nada, K.H. et al., 2010; Morakinyo, J. et al., 2003) as quoted in Cumber, S. M., et al., (2015)
Although all participants subscribed to children abusing drugs, the rationales advanced were mixed. For examples, peer influence and media, pleasure and brevity seeking, poor academic achievements, unstable or broken home environment, easy affordability and living with abusers, ignorance and poverty, curiosity and weak law enforcement, easy accessibility and public acceptance, not fearing of parents and adults, lack of parental supervision; and to work or study hard for long hours, etc. The findings is supported by, numerous factors can enhance the risk for initiating or continuing substance abuse including socioeconomic status, quality of parenting skills, peer group influence, and biological/inherent predisposition towards drug addiction, National Institute on Drug Abuse, (2010) as cited in Das, J. K. et al. (2016)
In addition, the study revealed different places where children mostly abuse drugs namely; peers’ homes, street corners, car parks, night and video clubs, ghettoes and during parties, schools, beach sides/tourism areas, children’s own homes, etc. This concurs with schools are known to be the temples of knowledge and wisdom but they do not have power to closely monitor the life activities and events of students to a check against smoking, drinking, sex or poor eating patterns and others, Singh, B. et al., (2017)
Similarly the findings revealed that children obtain drugs through various means including peers offering them, buying them jointly, adults abusers offerings them, picking remains in streets and ghettoes, stealing, as gifts for services to sellers, buying them individually, payment for services and including romantic ones, etc. This is supported by drugs initiators often obtained substances from friends but more frequently they stole them from parents or guardians, Kingston, S. et al., (2017)
The findings revealed that street children like other children are engaged in drugs abuse and for numerous reasons including peer influence and group recognition, lack of parental supervision or control, curiosity and residing with adult abusers, lack of stable home environment, to work hard and for long hours, to relieve stress, ignorance, easy accessibility, for seeking pleasure and relaxation, easy affordability, etc. as unearthed by street children use psychoactive substance for coping and fitting into street life circumstances, boldness to withstand violence, survival sex, pleasure, to curb hunger, to induce sleep, to numb emotions; and for entertainment (Kudrati, M. et al., 2008; Nada, K.H. et al., 2010; Morakinyo, J. et al., 2003) as quoted in Cumber, S. M., et al., (2015)
The most common reasons for substance abuse were due to peer pressure, experimentation or to boost self-confidence, Abhay, M. et al. (2007)
Similarly, the study revealed different perceived benefits for street children abusing drugs such as hallucination or feeling high, to feel accepted and trusted by peers, drowsiness, ability to work hard and for long hours, brevity, ability to focus or concentrate, ability to think and memorize quickly, etc. This concurs with the use of drugs and alcohol gives children the necessary courage to engage in violent behaviors and to instill fear in people, Salaam, A.O. et al., (2011)
Myburgh, C. et al., (2015)
The findings indicate participants’ strong awareness of the negative impacts of street children engagement in drug abuse. For instance, mental illness, aggressive conduct/behavior, frequent problems and beating by others at work places, endless problems with peers, frequent stealing and fighting, hatred towards school and formal education, endless family problems, diseases (e.g. HIV/AIDS, TB, STIs, etc.), road accidents involvement, stroke, etc. These revelations support street children are exposed to an assortment of risks to resilience that characterize their lives such as drug abuse, violence, gangs, HIV infection, illiteracy, incomplete schooling, delinquency, neglect, poor health and nutrition Montane, (2006) as cited in Molahlehi, L. A. (2014)
Similarly, the findings revealed the following drugs; marijuana, inhalant, alcohol, antibiotics, opium, diazepam, hashish, heroin, cocaine and paracetamol, etc. being among the most commonly abuse drugs by street children concurring with studies from Nigeria, India and Brazil that revealed the most commonly abuse substances include alcohol, kolanut, tobacco, cannabis, nicotine, inhalants; and marijuana (Morakinyo, J. et al. (2003); Pagare, D. et al., (2004); Praveen, D. et al., (2014) as cited in (94. Islam, F. et al., (2014)
The results indicate that participants have a good knowledge of some of the critical methods in the fight against drug abuse such as, avoidance of bad peer groups, regular education and/or sensitization campaign, closeness to responsible adults, mainstreaming drug abuse in school curriculum, engagement in self-esteem building activities, provision of gainful employments and family support, engagement in productive activities, effective law enforcement agencies, good parenting skills, tough laws, storing drugs safely, etc. This is in agreement with social bond and attachment with parents can decrease the consumption of drug among youth Aliiaskarov, B. et al., (2013)
Similarly, regular sensitization and/or education campaigns, avoidance of bad peer group, development of strong personalities and resistant skills, self-esteem building techniques, strengthening of family support programmes, promotion of strong parent-child relationship, regular monitoring of children’s activities and ensuring open line communication with children, regular engagement in useful activities, all the time closeness to responsible adults and religious persons, mainstreaming drug abuse in school curriculum, frequent one-on-one discussions, good parenting skills, provision of gainful employments for families, etc. were recognized as the most effective ways of preventing drug abuse among children. This concur with Guillen, et al.,(2015) as quoted in Singh, B. et al., (2017)
Subjective adults’ norms against drug use and community affirmation of positive behavior have been found to be related to less smoking behavior among young people, King et al., 2003) as cited in Morojele, N. et al. (n.d.)
The results revealed high level of awareness of the support services and treatments needed by victims of drugs abuse such as providing them with behavioral counseling or therapy, support groups including spiritual ones, supportive friends and family environment, a sober living environment, regular family support, a sober social network and/or peers, regular and affordable medical treatments, uninterrupted educational services, traditional or herbal treatments, vocational training or skills, etc. concurring with social support has been associated with better quality of life both among substance users and individuals with mental disorders and equally a significant correlate of subjective well-being among recovering substance users who are dually-diagnosed with comorbid psychiatric disorder (Brennan et al., 1990; Nelson, 1992; Laudet et al., 2000) as quoted in Laudet, A. B. et al., (2006)
Furthermore, the findings revealed the government institutions, local government authorities, United Nations agencies, support groups, mosques/marabous/churches, community based organizations (CBO), the community, the family, Non-Governmental Organization, faith based organizations (FBO), etc. as the fundamental providers of these services and treatments which strongly allied to a collaborative approach to engage the community in addressing substance abuse, Windsor, L.C. et al., (2012)
However, majority claimed the support do not exist in their society concurring with Naamara, W. et al., (2014)
The results indicated that the street children do not seek these support services and treatments due to fear of societal stigma and discrimination, they don’t want people to know them, fear of rejection by peers, the services providers are not child friendly, fear of being reported to the security agencies, the supports are expensive, they don’t trust the service providers, the services are not effective, they are not easily accessible, etc. which concurs with inability to share problems with others and stigma are the two major barriers in both groups as cited in Cunningham et al., (1993) as cited in Rapp, R. et al., (2006)
Furthermore, finding revealed street children including commercial vans casual apprentices like other children are abusing drugs mainly due to peer influence, seeking pleasure and relaxation, to work hard and for long hours, curiosity, ignorance, easy accessibility and Lack of or inadequate stable home environment, lack of or poor parental supervision, easy affordability, etc. This concurs with Boys, A. et al., (2001)
Morojele, N. et al. (n.d.)
To comprehend the vulnerability of street children to drug abuse six main areas were explored namely, level of knowledge of drug abuse, perception towards it, level of knowledge of the causes of it in the community and among street children, level of knowledge of the negative impacts of it, level of knowledge of the preventive methods; and level of knowledge of the support services and treatments needed by victims. The findings revealed among other things, that there is high level of consciousness of drug abuse but the feelings towards it is mixed. Like other children, street children are abusing drugs mainly due to peer influence with the ultimate objective of getting high to relief stress, group recognition, trusted by peers, etc. Similarly, participants are highly aware of the negative impacts encompassing fighting, stealing, mental illness, etc. To finance the behaviour, victims are engaged in all types of dangerous antisocial behaviour including romantic ones exposing them to a range of diseases including STIs. While participants have good knowledge of the critical methods to fight drug abuse, the support services needed by victims, victims are mostly reluctant to seek the services not only because they are hard to find but fear societal stigmatization, exclusion, discrimination; and professionals’ maltreatment. Though in the minority some children have started abusing hard drugs. In conclusion, some children including street children are abusing drugs and urgent actions need to be taken to rehabilitate and protect the future of the country.
To ameliorate the high risk, rehabilitate victims, and safeguard the last hope of our communities, it is recommended that:
Redouble their supervisory endeavors by regularly monitoring their children’s activities, ensuring strong parent-child relationship, always engaging their children in useful activities and maintain open line communication with them.
Continuously engage their children in open discussions both to know what is affecting them and share with them the negative effectives of antisocial behaviors including drug abuse.
Support their children to develop strong personalities, resistant skills, self-esteem building techniques, etc. to avoid bad peers’ victimization.
The promotion of children ‘being communities' children’ especially the most vulnerable ones should be revive and intensified and above all cherish as a fundamental pillar of coexistence.
Continue to be engaged in awareness raising activities to eliminate drug abuse in the society and equally fight stigma and discrimination with a view to encourage victims to come out and seek supports regularly and above all ensure resources are allocated by authorities.
Adults continue to engage the adolescents to build that required bonds with responsible adults including the religious ones to avert relying on peers for critical information.
Continues to fund regular sensitization and/or education campaigns to raise public awareness about drugs abuse and its associated negative impacts.
Mainstream contemporary social and health problems including drug abuse in school curriculum
Support reunification of street children with their families while creating more opportunities for them to go back to school to learn some skills including livelihood ones.
Fund family strengthening support programmes especially for those living in extreme poverty to adequately cater for their children to avert their going into the streets to fend for themselves and their poverty stricken families.
Formulate and ensure stricter enforcement of laws and policies against drug trafficking and its abuse, etc.